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2.3 What Dyslexia Looks Like at Various Ages and Grades
“Although it is helpful to agree upon a definition … it is more important to remember that no two … [individuals with dyslexia] are exactly alike, and that the manifestations of dyslexia change over time.”
– Louisa Cook Moats and Karen E. Dakin (2008)
It is important to acknowledge that numerous factors — such as severity, age of initial diagnosis and treatment, responsiveness of the reading/writing problem to treatment or remediation, coexisting conditions that may occur with dyslexia, and an individual’s strengths and areas of specific talent and interest, can cause dyslexia to vary considerably from one individual to another. (See Chapter 7 for more information about comorbidity and conditions that commonly coexist with dyslexia.) In addition, the observable features of dyslexia change over time, as a result of changing academic demands at the different stages of the student’s education, the student’s acquisition of language and literacy skills over time, his or her capacity for using compensatory strategies, and the personal strengths of the student. The following chart highlights “the possible strengths and the possible challenges typical of students with dyslexia” (Fairfax County Public Schools, 2019) during the life cycle of dyslexia.
Life Cycle of Dyslexia
We are grateful to Fairfax County Public Schools (FCPS), Fairfax, Virginia for permission to use the following copyrighted information from the FCPS online Dyslexia Handbook, Signs of Dyslexia, which was adapted from Overcoming Dyslexia (2003), by Sally Shaywitz, M.D.
PreK to Grade 1
Possible Strengths
- Curiosity
- A great imagination
- Creative
- Eager to embrace new ideas
- Maturity beyond their years
Possible Weaknesses
General
- Has a family history of reading/spelling difficulties
- Confuses left and right; delay in hand dominance
- Has trouble reciting the alphabet, numbers, days of the week or other sequences
- Has trouble learning common nursery rhymes such as “Jack and Jill”
- Has difficulty recognizing rhyming patterns (cat, bat, rat)
Speaking
- Was/is late learning to talk
- Mispronounces words by mixing up sounds (e.g., mawn lower)
- Has trouble naming letters, matching letters to sounds, or blending sounds
- Confuses names or pronunciations of letters with similar sounds (e.g., p/b; z/s; v/f; d/t)
Grades 1 to 3
Possible Strengths
- The ability to solve practical problems
- Strong listening comprehension
- Easily understands new concepts
- Large oral vocabulary for his/her age
- Enjoyment in solving puzzles
- Talent at building models
Possible Weaknesses
General
- Lacks fast, effortless recognition of numbers and simple math facts
Speaking
- Mispronounces words by mixing up sounds (cinnamon for synonym)
- Has difficulty breaking spoken words apart into sounds or syllables
Reading/Spelling
- Has difficulty sounding out simple words (cat, map, nap)
- Complains about how hard reading or spelling is, or avoids reading
- Has trouble reading/spelling sounds in sequence (left for felt)
- Reading is inaccurate, slow, and/or is not automatic
- Spells words incorrectly, even common high frequency (was, were, then)
- Relies on pictures or memorization when reading
- Confuses similar-looking letters and words (b/d, p/q, was/saw)
Grades 3 to 6
Possible Strengths
- Large vocabulary for his/her age Strong comprehension of stories read/told to him
- Strong thinking skills: conceptualization, reasoning, imagination, abstraction
- Ability to get the “big picture”
Possible Weakness
General
- Has trouble recalling dates, names, telephone numbers, random lists, math facts
- Has low self-esteem or anxiety
Speaking
- Confuses words that sound alike (e.g., tornado for volcano; lotion for ocean)
- Uses imprecise language (e.g., stuff, things)
- Oral language abilities much higher than writing skills
Reading/Spelling
- Reading is slow, inaccurate or halting/choppy
- Has trouble reading unfamiliar words; difficulty sounding out multisyllabic words
- Lacks strategies for sounding out new words
- Avoids reading aloud
- Has poor spelling and/or handwriting
- Spells words the way they sound, rather than the way they look
- Avoids reading and writing tasks; strongly prefers word processing
Grades 6 to 9
Possible Strengths
- A high level of understanding of what is read aloud
- A sophisticated spoken vocabulary
- Strong in areas not dependent on reading, such as math, computers and visual arts
- Strong in conceptual subjects, such as philosophy, science, social studies and creative writing
- Exceptional empathy and warmth, emotional intelligence
Possible Weaknesses
General
- Has trouble finishing tests on time
- Has difficulty learning a foreign language or reading music
- Has low self-esteem or anxiety
- Has to study more than peers
Speaking
- Pauses or hesitates when speaking, using “um” and “like” repeatedly
- Mispronounces words that are multisyllabic, unfamiliar, or complicated
- Uses imprecise language (e.g., stuff, things)
- Seems to need extra time to respond to questions
- Oral language abilities much higher than writing skills
Reading/Spelling
- Reading and writing are slower than those of peers
- Needs to reread for meaning
- May answer higher-level questions about text but miss easier, literal questions
- Avoids writing; compositions are brief and simplistic
- Poor spelling and/or handwriting
- Suffers fatigue when reading; avoids reading
Grades 9 - 12 & Beyond
Possible Strengths
- Excellence in writing if content is the focus and spelling is not important
- Exceptional empathy and warmth, emotional intelligence
- Success in areas not dependent on rote memory
- Talent for high-level conceptualization and original insights
- Big-picture thinking
- Inclination to think outside of the box
- Noticeable resilience and ability to adapt
Possible Weaknesses
General
- Has low self-esteem or anxiety
- Knowledge not reflected in standardized-test scores
- Has to study more than peers
Speaking
- Not fluent, often anxious while speaking
- Pauses or hesitates when speaking, using “um” and “like” repeatedly
- Uses imprecise language, (e.g., stuff, things)
- Struggles to retrieve words (i.e., “tip of my tongue” moments)
- Often pronounces names incorrectly; trips over parts of words; avoids saying words that might be mispronounced
- Has difficulty remembering names of people and places; confuses names that sound alike
- Struggles when put on the spot in conversations or writing
- Has spoken vocabulary that is smaller than listening vocabulary
Reading/Spelling
- Reading requires great effort and is at a slow pace
- Rarely reads for pleasure
- Avoids reading aloud
- Avoids writing; handwritten compositions are brief and simplistic
- Word-processed compositions can be disorganized and lack cohesion
- Has poor spelling and/or handwriting
- Has difficulty determining the correct spelling of words, even when using a spell checker while word processing
More Information
Computer-Based Information
The International Dyslexia Association (IDA) also has a series of free downloadable Fact Sheets that cover such topics as “Dyslexia Basics” and “Helpful Terminology.” The organization also maintains a list of Frequently Asked Questions which can be located on the IDA website.
The National Center on Improving Literacy (NCIL) offers a broad range of resources for school leaders, teachers, parents and families. It offers the series Improving Literacy Briefs with companion infographics.
The Yale Center for Dyslexia and Creativity’s Signs of Dyslexia, the Fairfax County Public Schools’ Dyslexia Handbook and the University of Michigan’s Clues to Dyslexia provide additional information about the signs and strength of individuals with dyslexia.
View Video
View “What Is Dyslexia?” a helpful video tutorial by Kelli Sandman-Hurley.
Video recordings of Dr. Jack Fletcher’s presentation at the 2017 Colorado Dyslexia Forum and Dr. Margie Gillis’ presentation at the 2018 Colorado Dyslexia Forum are available on the CDE dyslexia website.
Reading Rockets and the National Center for Improving Literacy have produced an extended video interview in 13 brief segments with Dr. Nadine Gaab, a research associate at Boston Children’s Hospital and an associate professor at Harvard Medical School, who discusses a range of topics, including early screening for reading risk and the paradox of dyslexia. The video “What is the dyslexia paradox?” is available on the Reading Rockets website.
View the video “Embracing Dyslexia,” a thoughtful and moving exploration of dyslexia from an insider’s perspective. The video in English and in Spanish. weaves together interviews with parents, adults with dyslexia, researchers, educators and experts.
View the movie The Big Picture: Rethinking Dyslexia. The movie provides personal and inspiring accounts of the dyslexia experience from children, experts and iconic leaders, including Sir Richard Branson and financier Charles R. Schwab.
Books and Print Information
Basic Facts about Dyslexia & Other Reading Problems, by Louisa Cook Moats and Karen E. Dakin, is available from the International Dyslexia Association (IDA).
Beginning to Read: Thinking and Learning About Print (1990), by Marilyn Jager Adams, is a comprehensive look at the history of reading instruction and the research that led to our understanding of the role that phonological awareness plays in reading.
Overcoming Dyslexia (2003), by Sally Shaywitz, M.D., is a comprehensive book that covers many aspects of dyslexia, including what dyslexia is; how dyslexia is diagnosed; and what parents, schools and students should know about dyslexia. An updated version was published in 2016.
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